History of Buddhism
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Prerequisites of the appearance
( Following Torchinov "introduction into buddologiyu"])
Buddhism arose in the northeastern part (territory of the contemporary state Bikhar), where were located those ancient states (Magadkha, Koshala, Vayshali), in which it preached and where Buddhism from the very beginning of its existence received significant propagation. It is usually considered that here, from one side, the position of vedicheskoy religion and connected with it varnovoy (class) system, which ensures the privileged position (of priestly) Varna, were weaker than in other parts (i.e., the northeast was as the "weak component" of brakhmanizma), and with other - precisely here continued the stormy process of state building, that assumed the elevation of another "noble" class - Varna kshatriyev (soldiers and secular rulers - tsars). Namely arose as oppositional the study, which was being rested, first of all, on the secular authority of tsars. It is here important to note that, in addition Buddhism contributed to the creation in India of powerful public educations like the empire Ashoki. Much later, already in . n. 3. the great Buddhist philosopher To vasubandkhu, presenting in its "receptacle Of abkhidkharmy" (Abkhidkharmakosha) sociogenic myth, almost nothing speaks about brakhmanakh, but very in detail is described the origin of tsarist authority.
Thus, in India was "tsarist by religion", that it did not prevent it from simultaneously being the form of ancient Indian freethinking, since the carrier of religious and generally ideological orthodoxy and ortopraksii was in India the priestly class of brakhmanov. Middle I- GO of millenium before n. 3. it was in India the time of the crisis of the ancient of vedicheskoy religion, by keepers and adherents of which they were . And it is not surprising that the "weak component" of brakhmanizma - the state of the northeast of India - became the support of religious motions, to which belonged Buddhism. But the appearance of these alternative studies was tightly connected with the disappointment of the part of the ancient Indian society in the vedicheskoy religion with its ritualizmom and formal piety, and also with the specific contradictions and the conflicts between brakhmanami (zhrechestvom) and kshatriyami (personified the beginnings of the secular authority of ancient Indian tsars).
Buddha's life
Basic article:
According to tradition, historical was borne in the kind Shak'ya the caste of kshatriyev in the country Magadkha (—), in the region Lumbini in the south of the contemporary . It also was calledShak'yamuni - belonging to clan Shak'ya.
After life into luxury in the palace of her father, king Kapilavast (reign of whom then entered into the state Magatkha), Siddkharta randomly encountered with the severe reality and drew the conclusion that the real life was connected with the sufferings and gorem яї6РяїzРяї=€хД"&@шСяїgђpРяїpРяї@ - advance repair train, adreptrain. It turned from life to palace and it began to conduct ascetic life together with the forest recluses. Then it came to the conclusion that the asceticism - was incorrect, and it is necessary to find intermediate way between the the samopotakanim and the self-restriction.
During the meditation under the tree Bodkhi it made the decision to at any cost find truth, and at the age of 35 years it reached enlightenment. It began to be called after this, or is simple Buddha, which indicates "that waked up".
The remaining 45 years of life it travelled on central India in the valley Ganges, training its followers and students.
Subsequently Buddha's followers in the course of the subsequent 400 years formed many different studies - school of early Buddhism (no), from which was preserved the study and the numerous branches .
Literature. Ashvagkhosha. Buddha's life. Per. K. Bal'monta. M., 1990.
Early Buddhism
The students of Buddha in accordance with the custom cremated the body of teacher. After cremation in the ashes they found sharira - special formations in the form of balls, characteristic for the bodies of the saints. They became the most important Buddhist relics. The tsars of adjacent states sent messengers with the request to give to them the particles of Buddha's dust. Late these particles of dust and sharira were placed into special relikvarii - mortar, cult structures of cone-like form. These mortars became as if predecessors of the Chinese the pagodas and chortenov (Mongolian suburganov). Enclosed by wall mortar in Sanchi it was preserved until our time. On the legend, such mortars there were one hundred eight (sacred in India number).
Later, when relics ended, into the mortars they began to place the texts of sutr, which were being read a little as the record of the authentic words of Buddha. Since Buddha's essence exists , its study, then sutry seemingly were To dkharmu as the spiritual body of Buddha. This replacement (physical body - spiritual body; "power" - texts; Buddha - Dkharma) proved to be very important for the subsequent history of Buddhism, since here, apparently, root the sources of the extremely important study of makhayanskogo Buddhism about by tele- Buddha's Dkharmovom (Dkharmakaya).
First Buddhist cobor
Legend asserts that soon after Buddha's nirvana occurred the first Buddhist "cathedral", when all students of Buddha and three of them were gathered - Ananda, Makhakash'yapa and Makhamaudgal'yayana to the memory reproduced everything, what taught Buddha - standard and the rules of monastic hostel, "Disciplinary Regulations" of sangkhi (Vinaya), sermon and Buddha's lecture () and its philosophical study, "over -Dxarmu" (Abkhidkharma). Thus arose Buddhist canon - Tripitaka (on they fell - Tipitaka), i.e., "three baskets" the studies (in ancient India they wrote on palm-tree leaves, which bore in the baskets). Studies indicate that in actuality the first of known to us the versions of canon - paliyskaya Tipitaka - was added during several centuries and it was for the first time recorded on Lanke near , i.e., is more than 300 years after Buddha's nirvana.
Second Buddhist cobor
The second Buddhist cathedral conducted tsar Kalasoka in Vaysali, and it was connected with the conflict between the traditional schools of Buddhism and the more liberal interpretations, known as Makhasangkhika. In accordance with the traditional schools, was not whom by others as by usual person, who reached enlightenment, and monks could repeat this experience, following monastic rules. Preodolevaya of suffering, monks could become . Supporters Makhasangkhiki this view considered selfish. They considered that the purpose of the reaching is not essential, but true goal - reaching the complete state of Buddha, a similar view subsequently developed into . They were the supporters of the more lightened monastic regulations, why them was supported the majority of monks and supporters of Buddhism.
Cathedral ended by the censure Makhasangkhikov, which left meeting, subsequently the supporters Makhasangkhiki they dwelled in northwestern India and Central Asia.
Administration of the tsar Ashoki (near )
Tsar Ashoka the empire Mauriyev (—) turned into Buddhism after it made bloody violence above the territory Of kalinga (state Orissa) in the east of India. Regretting in that effected, tsar decided to turn to the faith and to build numerous mortars and columns in the sign of respect for all living beings, and in order to vobudit' population to follow . In the entire country it built roads and hospitals.
At this time Buddhism began to be extended beyond the limits of India. According to columns and mortars with the inscriptions king Ashokya's, the emissaries were sent into all countries for the purpose of propoveli of Buddhism, and also into the Greek reign in king Ashokya's West Greek To baktriyu, but it is possible and further to the Mediterranean.
Third Buddhist cathedral
Tsar Ashoka was conducted cathedral near in Palaliputre (contemporary Patna). Meeting was carried out monk Moggaliputta. The discussion dealt with the reconciliation of ralichnykh Buddhist schools, the purification of Buddhist motion from the opportunist fractions, which grew under the tsarist guardianship, and the organization of the missionaries through entire known by that time peace.
At this time of uchtanovilsya is more clearly the composition of the canon Tripitaki, the containing word, transmitted directly from Buddha.
The third cathedral condemned the schools sarvastivady and dkharmaguptaki, which were then influential in northwestern indium and Central Asia in the times in the beginning of our era. Dkharmaguptaki they counted that Buddha it was isolated from the community it is located above it. Sarvastivadiny they advanced thesis about the uniformity of the time - present, which passed and future.
Missions Of ashoki in the hellenistic peace
Some of the edicts of the king Ashoka is described the activity Of ashoki in rasprostranneniyu of Buddhism in the Greek peace, which consisted of the nepreryyvnogo alternation of states from to . In the edicts it was obvious that Ashoka well it examined structure and organization of the Greek countries, there were present the names of the tsars, who were designated as novoprinyavshiye Buddhism - tsar Selevkidoa Antioch II Teos (261.—), is filadel'fiyskiy - Egyptian pharaoh (—), Antigone Gonat, the tsar (—), Magas Is kirenskiy (—) and Aleksandr Epirskiy (—).
According to paliyskim sources many emissaries Of ashoki were Greeks, which shows the wide exchange of the religious ideas between the cultures of that time.
Not entirely clearly, how these a connections actually influenced in Greece, but a number of the authors they note, that at this time completely could occur the processes of connecting hellenistic and the Buddhist methods of thinking. There are references about the Buddhist communities, first of all in Alexandrias (on the reference Klementa of the Alexandrine), and the pre-Christian monastery Therapeutists - evidently name occurred from the transformation the paliyskogo word .
In alexandria were found also the Buddhist epitaphs of the epoch of Ptolemy the decorated with images wheels Of dkharmy (it is container, "Greeks in Baktrii and India").
Propagation of Buddhism in Asia
To the east of India in the territory Indian culture had a strong effect on the people Mohn. Mohnas it is asserted, they turned into Buddhism approximately as a result of the mission of the tsar Ashoki, even before the separation of Buddhism into Makhayanu and Khinayanu. Early temples in the states Mohn, such as Peytkhano in central Burma, were based in the period —.
Buddhist skill Mohn the strong influence of the Indian skill of the times of the dynasty underwent Gupta and the subsequent dynasties, and this style was extended further on southeastern Asia as a result of expansions of the state Mohn in —. Under the effect of Mohn the study widely was extended, until it is substituted with Buddhism in .
was inverted into Buddhism by the son Of ashoki Makhindoy and by its six associates in . Buddhism accepted king Devanampiva yew-tree and many aristocrats. The monastery was based at this time Makhavikhara, become the center of tradition singal'tsev. During the administration of the king Vittagamani in was written the paliyskiy canon (—), the tradition Of tkheravady reached bloom, appeared such famous commentators, as Buddkhagkhosa THE IV—. Although also had a walking, prevailed, and remained the last stronghold Of tkheravady, from where this study in again was extended on southeastern Asia.
On the legends, the tsar Ashoka it sent the missionaries through into the regions Khotana, and the pond Tarima, and into the country of indoyevropeytsev Tokharistan.
Pursuit of Buddhism in the state Of sunga (—)
Dynasty Sunga (—) was based 50 years after death Of ashoki. After the murder of the last tsar Mauriyev Brkhadraty throne engaged itself the military leader Pus'yamitra Of sunga, orthodox . It is known to its , according to chronicles, it destroyed monastery with cruelty in the pursuit of Buddhism and killed monks, and laid about 84 thousand mortars (Divyavadana, pp.. 429 - 434), proposing on one hundred gold monetza the head of each Buddhist monk. A large quantity of Buddhist monastery they were they are inverted in , in particular Nalanda, Bodkhgaya, Sarnatkh and Matkhura.
Greek- Buddhist dialogue (— n. 3.)
Greek states were located to the West of India in , in the territory of north from the times near : the reign Selevkidov it arose in , then Greco -Baktri1skoe the reign it arose in .
Greco -baktri1ski1 the tsar Demetriy I it invaded in in after reaching Pataliputry, and established the Indus- Greek reign, which occupied different parts of North India up to the end . Buddhism flourished with the Indus- Greek tsars, and even it was considered that the intrusion of Greeks to India was caused by the desire to show support to the empire Mauriyev, for the protection of Buddhist faith from the pursuits of the dynasty Sunga (—).
One of the best indogrecheskikh tsars Menander I the rules — actively supported Buddhism, and in the tradition it is considered as the great patron of faith, podobnno to the tsars To ashoke or To kanishke- to the latter to lord. Is well known dialogue in Milinda between by tsar Menandr and by the monk Nagasenoy near .
It is possible that interaction of Buddhist and grechekoy cultures they led to the evolution ,
furthermore Greek idea about the man- god could influence the formation of Buddha's means.
Cm. also:
Buddhism and Rome
Roman sources describe embassy "Indian tsar Pandiona (Pand'ya?) ", to Caesar near n. 3. They arrived with the diplomatic letters in the Greeks, and one of the ambassadors was shramanom, which it burnt itself alive in Athens for the demonstration of faith. This event became sensational, and it is described By Nikolai Damaskskiy, which vtretil embassy in , is mentioned also Strabonom. The grave of this shramana was preserved until the time , which also left the reference of "???????????? ????? ??? ????????" ("the master of shraman from Bkharukha in India"). The discussion dealt with the Buddhists and not with braminakh, which resisted shramany.
The isolated information about Buddhism reached the West. In Klement is Alexandrine, отец христианского догматизма, писал про Будду:
- «Среди индийцев есть философы, следующие рекомендациям Boutta, которого они почитают как бога из-за своей непревзойдённой святости.»
Есть и другие упоминания. Некоторые комментаторы находят аналогии между историем о рождении Будды и историей о рождении Христа, и выводят влияние буддизма на раннее христианство.
Подъём Махаяны I век до н. э. — I век
Lift of Buddhism Of makhayany in was accompanied by a series of political changes in northwestern India. the Indus- Greek reign bollard, and its culture was of perenyata Indo-European nomads from Central Asia, Indus- Scythians and then Yuechzhi, that established near . Are consumed was supported Buddhism, and they called the fourth Buddhist cathedral during the administration of the tsar Kanishki near in Dzhalandare or in , precisely this cathedral usually is associated with the date of po"ema of Buddhism and its separation from Buddhism ??????. Representatives of the tradition do not recognize this cathedral, and sometimes is called it the "cathedral of heretical monks".
Tsar Kanishka it gathered in 500 headed by Vasumitroy for the editorial staff Tripitaki. In techenpii of cathedral were assembled 300 thousand verses and more than nine million positions, which brought into order of approximately twelve years. New canon no longer rested more on paliyskuyu Tipitaku, but it was rewritten on the the classical together with the basic condition Of makhayany.
The new form of Buddhism rested on the idea about Buddha's similarity to deity, and about the fact that all essences possess Buddha's nature, and was also included a number of cultural movements from northwestern India and Kushanskogo reign.
Propagation Of makhayany —
From this time began to flourish and to apply to the east from India to southeastern Asia, to the north into Central Asia, and also in , and finally in in .
After the disintegration Buddhism bloomed in with the dynasty Gupta (— ). Were created numerous centers on the study , first of all - the university Nalanda in northeast , which many hundreds years was most vliyatel'nchm from the Buddhist universities, where it taught in particular Nagardzhuna. Buddhist skill of the styles of the dynasty Gupta it was extended on southeastern Asia and fell in .
Indian Buddhism it weakened in because of the intrusion of white Hunns and invasion . However, in Buddhism there was another period of lift in the empire [ fall ] ], in which Buddhism it flourished s on , they constructed numerous temples in different styles of Buddhist skill.
Large impact on Buddhism was in , when headed by s Mukhammadom Kkhildzhi they destroyed To nalandu. At the end , when Moslems occupied key Buddhist places in To bikhare, the value of Buddhists in India became unessential. At this time collected sidu induistskiye motions, first of all Advayta and to bkhakti.
Although Buddhism was borne in , in remained only the small islets of Buddhism in the outskirts . Cm. also By buddizmi in India
North and central Asia
Central Asia
Buddhism penetrated in Central Asia probably from Buddha's himself times. Accordingly paliyskim to legends, two brother- merchants from To tapassu and Bkhalika visited Buddha and they became his students. Then they returned in built Buddhist temples (Foltz).
Central Asia played important role as the point of rendezvous of China, India and Persii. In the expansion of China (dynasty Khan') to the West it led to the contact of China with the hellenistic civilization, and in particular s Greco -Baktri1skim by the reign. Thus the propagation of Buddhism to the north led to the formation of Buddhist communities and states in the Central-Asian oases. In a number it is municipal Great silk way there are many Buddhist mortars and monastery, which apparently were used for the care of travellers.
Different schools of early Buddhism existed in Central Asia and China up to . Then it began to prevail , but in the monastery remained other orders Vinaias in the schools Sarvastivada and Dkharmaguptaka.
Buddhism in Central Asia began to come into the decline with the arrival beginning s . Here Moslems were not tolerant, since Buddhists did not belong to the peoples of the "book". They considered Buddhists idolaters and they pursued.
Cm. alsoGreat silk way, Buddhism in Central Asia
Tarimskiy pond
Eastern part of the average of azii(Chinese Turkestan, Tarimskiy pond, Xinjiang) it is famous by wealth of Buddhist skill (wall painting, reliefs in the caves, picture on the linen, sculpture, ritual objects), is noticeable in this case the influence of both the Indian and the hellenistic of cultures.
Historians note that Central Asia could play the key role in the propagation of Buddhism to the east. The first transfers of Buddhist compositions into the Chinese Language could be as (An'si) as An' Shigao ( ) or (An' Of syuan') of the people Yuechzhi as Lokaksema ( ), and also (Kantszyu) of the type Kahn Senkay. Majorities of thirty seven early translators of Buddhist texts can be identified as descendants from Central Asia.
The frescoes Of tarimskogo pond show the interrelation of Central-Asian and Chinese Buddhist communities up to .
Supposedly, Buddhism penetrated in in n. 3. from Central Asia, although there are legends o that how Buddhist monks they visited China during the administration of the tsar Ashoki. To was the very active center of Buddhism.
n. 3. it is considered officially the year of the appearance of Buddhism in China, which the monks brought Moton and Chufarlan. In n. 3., under the patronage of emperor they established Temple of the white horse (???), which, until now, was preserved not far from the capital Loyana. At the end large community was based into Pencheng (now To syuchzhou, Prof. ).
?????? ?????? ????? translated to the Chinese Language the kushanskiy monk Lokaksema in To loyane between and n. 3..
Prosperity of Buddhism it was necessary for the period of the administration of the dynasty (—). At this time China was very opened to foreign influence, then relations with India were restored, and many Chinese monks drove into India s on .
Capital of the dynasty Chan"an' (contemporary Sian') it became the spiritual center of Buddhism. Hence Buddhism was extended in and Japan.
However, toward the end of the epoch foreign influence ceased to start with the cordiality, and in emperor in Tszun it forbade all foreign religions, including , and in order to support the Chinese . Throughout the entire territory of China it confiscated the property of Buddhist communities, destroyed monastery and executed monks, after which the cultural and intellectual predominance of Buddhism in China ended.
Schools Clean earth and Chan' still several centuries could in this case be held, the school Of chan' was transmitted into Japan in the form . In the period of the bloom Chan' it is fallen to the dynasty Sun (—), when chan'skiye monastery became powerful cultural and training centers.
Buddhist skill in China was preserved well up to now, many monuments of skill and architecture are guarded as the world cultural heritage UNESCO.
Cm. also: Buddhism in China
Buddhism penetrated in Korea near , when Chinese ambassadors visited the kingdom , after bringing with itself the manuscript and images. Buddhism bloomed in Korea, and in particular the school Of seon () beginning s . However, since the beginning of Confucian dinasii I of the period Choson in Buddhism began to be pursued and almost it disappeared, with exception of the remained school Of seon.
Cm. also: Buddhism in Korea
Now became largest Buddhist country. Buddhism arrived to Japan in , brought by the wandering monks. The numerous books and the works of skill arrived with Buddhism. In the following century Buddhism was accepted as the established religion.
Being located on the far end Great silk way, could preserve numerous aspects of Buddhism, which were lost in India or depressed in Central Asia and .
C many temples began to be constructed in the capital of the country Bunk, in particular five-deck the pagoda and famous gold pavilion. The neschislennye pictures and sculptures were created frequently with the support of state. The especially significant works of skill were created in the periods Bunk, Kheyan and .
In — began the bloom .
arose in East India in —. Many practice tantricheskiy Buddhism they arrived from brakhmanizma (, , the burning of sacral victims), and these obychii entered into Makhayanu. Tantricheskiy Buddhism began to prevail on beginning s .
Cm. also Tibetan Buddhism
Southeastern Asia
In the flow n. 3. trade on To great silk way it was limited because of the lift , of that locating in the hostility k , although Romans prospered and their needs for the Asian luxury grew. For this reason began shshchiroko to be used the seaways between the Mediterranean and by means . The influence of India on the countries of southeastern Asia grew from this time. Commercial ways connected India from south , central and southern , of the lower and southern , where were built city and strengthening.
More than thousand years the culture of the countries of southeastern Asia determined Indian influence, there fell those revered of tekstv on they fell and on , Indian compositions, , , , and fell directly from the Indian preachers and the merchants.
S on in southeastern Asia were formed the strong empires, which actively constructed Buddhist temples, in these countries Buddhist skill flourished. The state was formed to the south Shrividzhaya, and on the north - Kkhmerskoye reign, in which it flourished c by the extensive pantheon .
Empire Shrividzhaya -
State Shrividzhaya with the center on the island Sumatra in , of prinyalya Buddhism and with the dynasty Of saylendra. This led to the wide acceptance of skill and sculpture. Numerous statues of the makhayanskikh of very elegant work was found in this region. Remained staggering on the refinement and the architectural solution the Buddhist khramovyy complex Borobodur, built to the islands near ), Empire Shrividzhaya it arrived into the decline in the consequence of conflicts with the Indian tsars Chola, and was then defeated in the period of the expansion in . Cm. also "Buddhism in Indonesia".
Kkhmerskaya empire -
It is later, in - in entire southeastern Asia prevailed Buddhism and , central role played . At this time in and adjacent was built 900 temples. Khramovyy complex Angkor it was in the center itself and attended city with more than the millionth population. Great kkhmerskiy tsar Dzhayavarman OF THE VII (—) built numerous makhayanskikh construction in To bayone and Angkor To tkhome.
Cm. also Buddhism in Cambodia.
Since in Buddhism Of makhayany in India arrived into the decline, Makhayana began to come into the decline and in southeastern Asia, and in Makhayane further for the change it arrived from .
Revival Of tkheravady
C , when Buddhism after the Islamic achievement of India began to come into the decline, commercial ways through India were reduced, but began to be developed ways from the Near East in through . This led to the fact that southeastern Asia accepted Buddhism from the monks from , which extended the paliyskiy canon.
Founder the tsar Anoratkha (—) could unite country and accept Tkheravadu, after which of thousands of Buddhist temples they began to be constructed in To pagane, of which were preserved more than two thousand. weakened in proportion to the strengthening and the plunder Pagana by Mongolians in , but Buddhism remained basic of the religions of Burmeses to this day.
was also accepted in the new state in - kingdom Sukkhotay near . Then again bloomed in the kingdom Ayuttaya s on ), after becoming the integral part of the Thailand society.
In continued to be extended on the continent, after falling in and . However, s on the coast and on the islands the influence was strengthened and envelopped , and southern .
Cm. also:History of Burma, Buddhism in Burma, Buddhism in the countries.
Propagation of Buddhism to the West
After the Greco- Buddhist contacts, fixed in the antique times, the encounters of Buddhism with the western peace occurred episodically, in- basic in connection with the activity of embassies, merchants and Christian missionaries. ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????????? Rubruka in the Mongolia in . Cm. Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road".
The wide acceptance of Buddhism in the western countries began in for many reasons.
- Mass emigration of Chinese, Japanese, Koreans and Vietnamese in USA, , of the country of Europe and America in .
- Increase in the interest in Buddhism in THE USA and in the European society at the end - beginning because of the discovery for the external peace in and the activity Theosophic society, that was being attempted to draw the attention of wide public to the occultism.
- Base of the first Buddhist societies and in the western countries in the beginning .
- Invigoration of the activities of Tibetan Buddhist schools after the occupation and the support of Tibetan refugees by the western countries (the second-half ). During this period Tibetan Buddhism it was opened for the western public, practically all schools of Tibetan Buddhism found support and established their societies in many countries, first of all in THE USA, Germany, Switzerland, Italy.
In the western countries there are at present practically all Buddhist directions, which have their societies, temples, schools and meditatsionnye centers, which count millions of adherents.
Cm. also Buddhism in the countries, Buddhism in Europe and America.
References
- Aleksandr Berzin. TIBETAN BUDDHISM: history and the prospect for development.
- E. A. Torchinov introduction into buddologiyu
References in the English
- "Dictionary of Buddhism" by Damien Keown (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0198605609
- "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0691036802
- "Living Zen" by Robert Linssen (Grove Press, New York, 1958) ISBN 0802131360
- "National Museum Arts asiatiques- Guimet" (Editions de la Reunion des Mus1.es Nationaux, Paris, 2001) ISBN 2711838978.
- "Religions of the Silk Road" by Richard Foltz (St. Martin’s Griffin, New York, 1999) ISBN 0312233388
- «The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies» by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press, New York, 2002) ISBN 1581152035
- «The Times Atlas of Archeology» (Times Books Limited, London, 1991) ISBN 0723003068
- «Japanese Buddhism» by Sir Charles Eliot, ISBN 0710309678
- "Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch "by Sir Charles Eliot, ISBN 8121510937
